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全部 哲学 经济学 法学 教育学 文学 历史学 理学 工学 农学 医学 管理学 艺术学 交叉学科 通用(不限专业)

数据结构 / B+树索引

核心内容
B+树是多路平衡搜索树,叶子节点链表相连,广泛用于数据库与文件系统索引。

常见口试问答(中文要点)
讲清为什么用 B+树做索引:树矮胖、减少磁盘 I/O;叶子链表支持高效范围查询;非叶子只存键。

英文答题要点(考官关注)
Define B+Tree; compare with B-Tree; why leaf nodes linked; how it reduces disk I/O and speeds range queries.

信号与系统 / 傅里叶变换

核心内容
傅里叶变换将时域信号分解为不同频率的正弦分量,揭示频率构成。

常见口试问答(中文要点)
傅里叶变换把信号从时域变到频域;用途:滤波、频谱分析、系统频率响应。

英文答题要点(考官关注)
Define Fourier transform; time domain vs frequency domain; application in filtering and spectral analysis.

制药工程专业课程总览(复习要点摘编)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:制药工程专业课程复习要点

核心内容
【制药工程 APS 复习笔记】

【一、学科总览】

制药工程涉及药物从工艺设计到质量控制、再到药理作用的完整链条,核心课程包括:制药工艺学、药物分析、仪器分析、药理学、生物医学工程导论,以及配套的无机与分析化学、有机化学、物理化学、生物化学实验。

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【二、制药工艺学(Pharmaceutical Technology)】

研究药物生产的共性规律:选择和设计工艺路线(process route)、确定工艺参数(process parameter)(温度、压力、投料比例),保证产品质量合格可控。

确定工艺三步骤:
1. 小试:实验室打通路线,确定工艺参数。
2. 中试放大(pilot scale-up):工厂条件下放大,研究参数变化并优化。
3. 试生产:全流程验证,制定生产规程。

三大工艺类型:
· 全合成:从简单化工原料经多步化学反应及物理处理(冷却、蒸馏、萃取)制得药物。
· 半合成:从动植物提取天然产物再改造修饰。
· 生物技术制药:在生物反应器中一步反应合成(区别于化学制药的多步反应)。

工艺衡量原则:路线简短、原料易得低廉、条件易控(常温常压最佳)、废料少且环保、收率高成本低。

【手性制药技术】
· 沙利度胺事件(thalidomide scandal):1953 年发明作镇定药,德国 Chemie Grünenthal 上市用于焦虑、睡眠障碍;含 2 种光学异构体(optical isomers),R 构型安全,S 构型致海豹肢畸形,上百新生儿出生百日内死亡。
· 手性碳:连接 4 个完全不同基团的碳。
· R/S 构型判断:4 基团按大小排序,最小基团置于最远位置,从大到小顺时针为 R 型。
· 赤型(erythro):两个手性碳上相同原子/基团在同一侧;苏型(threo)相反。

【氯霉素生产工艺(全合成范例)】
· 广谱抗生素,治疗伤寒首选;结构为 D-苏型-N-[α-(羟基甲基)-β-羟基-对硝基苯乙基]-2,2-二氯乙酰胺。
· 含 2 个手性碳 → 4 个光学异构体,仅两个手性碳均为 R 者有药效。
· 基本骨架:苯基丙烷。取代基策略:1 位羟基;2 位先接卤原子再胺化、乙酰化;3 位羟基由酯基还原或碳负离子进攻甲醛;4 位硝基用混酸硝化。
· 共 7 种潜在路线,其中路线四为现实采用(以乙苯为原料经对硝基苯乙酮);路线一(对硝基苯甲醛+甘氨酸,6 步)步骤少但还原剂 Ca(BH₄)₂ 昂贵、易生成不需要的异构体;路线五用对硝基苯乙酮肟,副产物异构体可直接沉淀,但工艺更复杂。

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【三、仪器分析方法(Instrumental Analysis Method)】

分析化学分支,用复杂特殊仪器获取物质化学组成、结构及含量信息。重点:色谱法(chromatography,含 GC、HPLC)、紫外光谱法(UV spectroscopy);初步了解 IR、NMR、MS。

【色谱法(Chromatography)】
· 定义:分离多组分混合物并分析成分的方法。
· 原理:各组分在互不相溶的两相间反复多次分配(distribution),因性质结构差异在柱中前进速度不同、流出次序不同。
· 两相:流动相(mobile phase,气体或液体)、固定相(stationary phase,液体或固体)。
· 分配机制:吸附(adsorption)、溶解(dissolution)、离子交换(ion exchange)。
· 与光谱法区别:色谱法能分离不同物质,光谱法不能。
· 分离过程:亲和力微小差异经成百上千次累积放大;固定相中溶解弱者先流出。

塔板理论(Tray Theory):固定相分为多层塔板,每层达分配平衡。例:极性高的 A 在极性流动相中溶解度高,大部分随流动相进入下一级塔板,极性弱的 B 相反,多层分配后可得纯 A。

HPLC 构成:进样系统、高压输液系统、色谱柱、检测系统,四系统集成并与电脑相连。

色谱图(Chromatogram):
· 峰的数目 = 混合物中物质个数。
· 两峰间隔:反映分配能力差别,越远流出时间差越大。
· 峰宽:反映流动是否受阻,越窄分离效率越高。

实验:HPLC 测咖啡因含量:两人一组(一人配样、一人操作机器)。流程:配样 → 开机连电脑 → 软件设参数(检测时间、流动相比例、压力、流速)→ 流动相润洗三遍(排气、保通畅)→ 观察基线平稳 → 20 μL 进样器注样 → 半分钟后拔出 → 等待色谱图。

【紫外可见光谱法(UV-Visible Spectroscopy)】
· 用途:利用分子吸光特性鉴别有机物。
· 原理:分子轨道电子在不同能级间跃迁,辐射光能量达跃迁所需时被吸收,出射光强低于入射光强。
· 朗伯-比尔定律(Lambert-Beer Law):A = lg(I₀/I) = ε·b·c
 · A 吸光度(absorbance);I₀ 入射光强;I 出射光强;ε 摩尔吸光系数(molar absorptivity);b 光程(path length);c 溶液浓度。
· 波长范围:200–800 nm 可鉴别大部分有机物。
· 吸收光谱图:横坐标波长,纵坐标吸光度。
· 关键规律:存在最大吸收峰;同一物质不论浓度,最大吸收峰波长相同;不同物质吸收曲线与最大吸收波长不同。

仪器(UV-Vis spectrophotometer):由光源(碘钨灯 iodine-tungsten lamp 或氘灯 deuterium lamp)、单色器(monochromator,用光栅 grating 或棱镜 prism)、检测器、样品室构成,体积约如家用打印机。样品室有 4 个比色皿(cuvette)孔洞,一个盛空白溶液(reference solution)排除误差;检测波长通常选最大吸光度处。

· 发色团(chromophore):使分子在紫外-可见区吸收光的基团,一般为带 π 电子基团(苯环、碳碳双键、三键);电子从 π 成键轨道跃迁到 π 反键轨道,或从非键跃迁到 π 反键轨道。例:苯环 254 nm 有吸收峰。
· 助色团(auxochrome):单独不产生吸收峰,与发色团连接后使吸收带红移并增强吸收,通常带未成键电子对。例:-OR、-OH、-Br、-Cl;苯环连羟基后吸收峰升至 270 nm。

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【四、药物分析实验】

包括阿司匹林肠溶片含量测定、硫代乙酰胺法检查葡萄糖中重金属、紫外光谱法鉴别异烟肼片、薄层色谱法检查布洛芬有关物质。

阿司匹林肠溶片含量测定(两步滴定法 two-step titration):阿司匹林易水解产生水杨酸和醋酸,肠溶片含酒石酸稳定剂,直接滴定不准。
1. 取 30 片研粉,100 ml 容量瓶加 70 ml 乙醇,加水定容,过滤取 20 ml 续滤液。
2. 加中性乙醇 20 ml 和 3 滴酚酞,用 0.1 mol/L NaOH 中和游离酸至粉红色。
3. 精密加过量已知 NaOH 20 ml,70 ℃ 水浴 15 min 振摇使阿司匹林完全水解。
4. 用 0.05 mol/L 硫酸滴至紫红色刚好褪去,中和过量 NaOH。
5. 由硫酸浓度与体积算未反应 NaOH 量,与总量做减法得与阿司匹林反应的 NaOH 量。

计量关系:1 mol 硫酸消耗 2 mol NaOH;1 mol NaOH 消耗 1 mol 阿司匹林。

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【五、药理学(Pharmacology)】

研究药物与人体相互作用规律,含药物效应学(pharmacodynamics)与药物代谢动力学(pharmacokinetics)。

【药物效应学】
· 药理作用:药物作用于机体器官的结果,表现为兴奋(excitement)和抑制(inhibition);分治疗作用(therapeutic effect)与不良作用(adverse effect)。
· 量反应(quantitative response):随剂量增加而增强;质反应(qualitative response):显著改变机体性质。
· 受体(receptor):药物作用靶点,转导细胞信号的蛋白质;与配体(ligand)结合起生理作用,与药物结合起药理作用。
· 拮抗药(antagonist):与受体结合后阻断作用。

【药物代谢动力学(PK)】
研究药物体内全过程 ADME:
· 吸收(Absorption):口服、注射、鼻腔吸入。
· 分布(Distribution):经血液循环到全身;影响因素有血浆蛋白结合能力(plasma protein binding)、器官血流量、生理屏障(血脑屏障 blood-brain barrier、血眼屏障)。
· 代谢(Metabolism):经肝药酶(liver drug enzymes)作用失活。
· 排泄(Excretion):经肾脏随尿液排出。

药物消除动力学:
· 零级消除动力学:单位时间消除量恒定,与浓度无关。
· 一级消除动力学:消除速度与浓度成正比,单位时间消除比例恒定。

【传出神经药理学】
· 传出神经系统:大脑控制身体器官的途径,含自主神经系统(支配心脏、血管、平滑肌,无需意识控制)与运动神经系统(支配骨骼肌控制运动呼吸)。
· 药物受体分类:乙酰胆碱受体、肾上腺素受体;接收神经递质(neurotransmitters)完成信号转导。
· 匹鲁卡品(Pilocarpine):乙酰胆碱受体激动药,收缩瞳孔、降低眼内压,治疗青光眼(glaucoma)和虹膜睫状体炎。

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【六、生物医学工程导论(Introduction to Biomedical Engineering)】

【医学检测与生物传感器(biosensor)】
识别生化指标并转换为电信号的装置。
· 血常规检测:常用电阻抗法。血细胞相对同渗透压电解质溶液为劣导体;恒定电流下血细胞通过小孔时电压骤升成脉冲(pulse),体积越大脉冲幅度越大;信号经放大、甄别、整形得细胞计数,多数仪器提供细胞体积直方图。
· 病毒性疾病检测:核心为病毒抗原(antigen)与抗体(antibody)特异性结合。双抗体夹心法(double antibody sandwich method):一抗体固定于固相,另一抗体连酶且游离;加入血液后若含抗原则形成复合物,洗去游离酶标抗体,加底物生成有色物,据颜色判定抗原有无。

【生物医学材料】
适于替代或修复活体组织的人工或天然材料。三大用途:替代受损组织器官(假牙、人工关节)、改善恢复器官功能(隐形眼镜)、辅助治疗(血管内支架)。
· 性能要求:生物功能性(biological functionality,如人工瓣膜耐磨耐腐蚀、种植牙高硬度导热);生物相容性(biocompatibility,人体对材料的炎症/毒性/致癌反应与材料对人体的腐蚀/降解均在可接受范围)。
· 实例:钴铬合金(cobalt-chromium alloys)曾用于牙种植体,因铬致癌被弃用。
· 分类:
 · 金属:不锈钢(手术器械、支架、正畸托槽)、钛合金(人工关节、踝膝髋)。
 · 无机非金属:羟基磷灰石(hydroxyapatite,骨骼牙齿主要成分,良好骨替代再生材料)。
 · 高分子:硅橡胶(silicone rubber,鼓膜修复片、隐形眼镜、填充物)、胶原蛋白(collagen,伤口敷料、缝合线、止血剂)。

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【七、核磁共振(NMR)原理】

· 原子核带正电,自旋量子数(spin quantum number)不为零时有自旋运动,形成环电流产生磁场与磁矩(magnetic moment)。
· 无外加磁场时核磁矩取向无序,加磁场后有序排列。
· 自旋量子数 1/2 的核(氢核、碳核,有机化合物最常见)有两种取向:与外磁场反向(高能态)或同向(低能态)。
· 施加电磁辐射,当能量恰等于两自旋取向能级差时,低能态核吸收能量跃迁至高能态——即 NMR 原理。

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【八、基础实验要点】

【革兰氏染色(Gram staining)】
· 原理:革兰氏阳性菌细胞壁厚、肽聚糖(peptidoglycan)含量高、类脂质低;阴性菌相反。
· 步骤:结晶紫(crystal violet)初染(均蓝)→

【说明】本条目为制药工程专业课程复习要点的中文浓缩摘编,覆盖学科总览与 6 门课程要点,原文在「【八、基础实验要点】」处中断;各门课程的完整原文见本专业下同名的课程条目。

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|专业:制药工程|课程:制药工程专业课程复习要点

制药工艺学(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:制药工艺学

核心内容
制药工艺学的内容是药物生产过程中的共性规律以及一些典型的应用,例如选择和设计工艺路线,工艺路线就是合适的原料和目标产品之间的一系列化学反应过程;确定合适的工艺参数(process parameter)(温度、压力、投料比例)以确保产品质量合格而且可控。以及研究药物制备的原理。
在第一章中我学习了确定制药工艺的三个具体步骤,第一步为小试阶段,这一阶段的目的是在实验室中从原料开始可以实现合成产物(regardless of the amount of the product produced),通过研究化学合成反应的规律,初步打通工艺路线,确定工艺参数。第二步是中试放大(pilot scale-up),在工厂条件下,将小试工艺放大,研究放大后工艺参数的变化。对工艺路线进行优化。这一步也是大部分第三步是通过试生产对工艺全流程进行验证,并且制定生产规程。
制药工艺分为三大类型,第一个是全合成,即从简单化工原料出发,经过一系列化学反应和物理处理过程(冷却,蒸馏,萃取)制得药物。第二个是半合成,区别在于半合成是从自然动植物中提取已经具有一定复杂化学结构的天然产物中进行改造和修饰生产药物。第三则是生物技术制药,其与化学制药的区别是化学制药通过多步反应合成药物,而生物技术通过一步反应在生物反应器中合成药物
衡量制药工艺中,我们面临着多种因素之间的权衡:合成路线的尽可能简短,反应步骤少;原辅材料的简单易得,低廉;反应条件易于控制,对设备的要求不苛刻(比如常温常压生产最好,不需要加压或低温设备);排出废料少或易于处理,绿色环保;最后收率最好,成本最低,经济效益好。
手性制药技术也是我们的课程中非常重要的一个章节,我相信每一个中国的化学和药学生都在课堂中听过一个例子,thalidomide scandal, 沙利度胺1953年被发明用作镇定药(tranquilizer),and was later marketed by the german pharmaceutical company called chemie grunenthal as a medication for anxiety, trouble sleeping, what people didn’t realize is that there are 2 different 光学异构体(optical isomers),R构型是安全的,而S构型导致了上百个新生儿的海豹肢症状,新生儿出生后百日内死亡。手性碳是指连接了4个完全不同的基团。手性碳的R;S构型判断方式:将4个基团按从大到小排序,将最小的基团放在观察者最远的位置(画一个正四面体)基团从大到小顺时针则手性碳是R型。赤型是两个手性碳上相同的原子和基团都在同一侧。苏型相反。
接下来我将以一个具体药物的制造工艺为实例介绍上述所提到的理论,就是氯霉素的生产工艺,氯霉素是人工合成的广谱抗生素,是治疗伤寒疾病的首选药物,它的合成工艺较为成熟,是教科书中介绍全合成工艺的范例。它的基本结构是D-苏型-N-[α-(羟基甲基)-β-羟基-对硝基苯乙基]-2,2-二氯乙酰胺。有两个手性碳,说明有4个光学异构体,但只有一种是有药效活性的,(两个都是R)。接下来确定这个化合物的基本骨架,基本骨架是苯基丙烷(一个苯环连着丙烷)。接下来看四个需要连接的取代基,分别是1位的羟基,2位的2,2-二氯乙酰胺可以先连接卤原子,胺化后引入氨基,再把氨基乙酰化。3位的羟基可以用酯基还原或者使2位C上有活泼氢,脱去活泼氢后2位C变成碳负离子,进攻甲醛上带正电的碳离子。4位苯环上硝基的引入采用混酸硝化。接下来继续拆解基本骨架,分为了从苯甲基结构出发和苯乙基结构出发的共7种潜在的合成路线。
路线一:对硝基苯甲醛和甘氨酸为原料,经过6步反应得到产物,优点:合成步骤少,所需物料品种和设备少,但是因为第一步需要消耗大量的对硝基苯甲醛,假如原料用量变少,则会出现大量不需要的另一种光学异构体。而且还原剂Ca(BH4)2价格昂贵
第二条是对硝基苯甲醛和乙醛缩合得到对硝基肉桂醇的路线,特征是溴水对烯烃的双键进行加成同时在1位引入羟基和2位引入溴
第三条与第二条类似,但是使用苯甲醛为原料,在最后一步才在苯基上引入硝基,因为这一步需要在低温下进行(-20℃),需要额外引入制冷设备。
现实中采用的路线4是以乙苯为原料经过对硝基苯乙酮
第五条路线:以乙苯为原料经过对硝基苯乙酮肟合成,除了前几步与路线4不同,使用到了对硝基苯乙酮肟为中间体,不需要的光学异构体会直接沉淀析出,不需要分离,但是工艺过程更加复杂
第六条路线是以苯乙烯为原料,经过α-羟基对硝基苯乙胺,优点是原料简单易得,合成路线简单,大部分步骤收率较高,缺点是胺化的步骤收率不理想
第七条路线是以苯乙烯为原料制成β-卤代苯乙烯经过prins反应。有点事合成步骤短,前四部中间体均为液体,可以实现连续自动化操作,缺点是需要使用高压反应设备和高真空度蒸馏设备。造成额外的价格和安全风险。

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|制药工艺学aps中文稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:制药工艺学

仪器分析方法(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:仪器分析方法

核心内容
我在第4个学期上了这门仪器分析方法的课程,仪器分析方法是采用了复杂和特殊的仪器设备,来获取物质的化学组成化学结构和成分含量等信息的一系列方法,是分析化学下面的一个分支。
In the fourth semester, I took this course of instrumental analysis method. Instrumental analysis method is a series of methods that adopt complex and special instruments and equipment to obtain the information of chemical composition, structure of substances or mixtures, it is a field of analytical chemistry.
在这门课程中我主要学习了色谱法,包括气相色谱法和高效液相色谱法以及紫外光谱法,也对红外光谱法、nmr和质谱法做了初步的了解。
In this course, I mainly learned chromatography, including gas chromatography, high performance liquid chromatography and ultraviolet spectroscopy, and also made a preliminary understanding of infrared spectroscopy, nmr and mass spectrometry.
首先我想介绍色谱法,色谱法是一种通过分离多组分混合物来分析混合物成分的有效方法。它的原理是,混合物各组分在互不相溶的两相间进行反复多次的分配,由于组分在性质和结构上的差异,不同组分在色谱柱中前进的速度不同,从色谱柱中流出的次序也不同。
First I would like to talk about chromatography, which is an effective way to analyze the composition of a mixture by separating a mixture into several pure substanace. Its principle is that the components of the mixture are distributed repeatedly in the two insoluble phases(the mobile phase is usually gass or liquid and the stationary phase are usually liquid or solid). Because of the differences in the nature and structure of the components, different components advance at different speeds in the chromatographic column, and the order of outflow from the chromatographic column is different.(This allocation can be adsorption or dissolution or ion exchange).
有一个原理可以描述色谱分离过程,叫做塔板理论,塔板理论规定,一个色谱柱中的固定相被分为多层塔板。同时每个组分在塔板上都会达到分配平衡。假设有两个组分A和B,组分A的极性高,因此在极性溶剂中的溶解度高于非极性溶剂,当我们选用极性溶剂作为流动相时,非极性溶剂为固定相时,大部分的A不会存在于固定相中,而会随着流动相进入下一级塔板,而极性弱的B则刚好相反,因此在第二层塔板中流动相中A的比例大大提高,在第二层中发生同样的分配过程,依次类推,经过多层塔板分配之后,当流动相流出色谱柱时,几乎可以得到纯粹的组分A。
There is one principle that can describe the process of chromatographic separation, it’s called tray theory. Tray theory states that the stationary phase in a column is divided into multiple trays. At the same time, each component will reach a distribution balance on every tray. Suppose there are two components A and B, and the polarity of component A is high, so the solubility of component A in polar solvent is higher than that of non-polar solvent. When polar solvent is used as mobile phase and non-polar solvent is fixed phase, most of A will not exist in the fixed phase, but will enter the next level of tray along with the mobile phase, while B with weak polarity is just the opposite. Therefore, the proportion of A in the mobile phase in the second layer tray is greatly increased, the same distribution process occurs in the second layer, and so on. After the distribution of multi-layer tray, when the mobile phase flows out of the chromatographic column, almost pure component A can be detected in the mobile phase.
高效液相色谱仪主要由进样系统,高压输液系统,色谱柱和检测系统构成,这四个系统会被集成在一个大型仪器中与电脑相连,在电脑上我可以读出色谱图,对色谱图进行分析就可以得到一个混合物的组成情况
The high performance liquid chromatographic instrument is composed of an injection system, a high pressure infusion system(this system push the mobile phase forward), a column and a detection system. These four systems are integrated in a large instrument connected to a computer. On the computer, I can read the chromatogram, analyze the chromatogram and get the information of the mixture.
色谱图是一条随着流动相流动而变化的线,当物质流出的时候会出现山峰的形状,峰的数目代表混合物中物质的个数,有两个非常重要的评价分离能力的指标:
两个峰的间隔:这代表两个物质在这个分离体系里分配能力的差别是否明显,两个峰隔得越远,说明两种物质流出的时间相差越大。
峰的宽度:代表物质在色谱柱中流动受不受阻碍,峰越窄,色谱柱的分离效率越高。
The chromatogram is a line that changes as the mobile phase flows. As the material flows out, the shape of the peaks will appear. The number of peaks represents the amount of substances in the mixture. There are two very important indicators of separation ability
The distance between the two peaks: This represents the difference between the distribution capacity of the two substances in the separation system. The farther apart the two peaks are, the greater the difference in the time of outflow of the two substances.
Peak width: represents the material flow in the column is not impeded, the narrower the peak, the higher the separation efficiency of the column.
(与光谱法区别:色谱法可以把不同物质分离开来,光谱法不行
这种分配可以是吸附,可以是溶解,可以是离子的交换)
分离的基本过程:组分的分子在流动相和固定相之间反复多次分配的过程:不同组分亲和能力的微小差异经过成百上千次的累计变成较大差异就可以区分物质了;在固定相中溶解能力差的先流出来,强的后流出来。
仪器分析实验,用高效液相色谱仪测定咖啡中咖啡因的含量,这个实验需要两个人成一组,一个人配置样品,另一个人操作机器。我负责操作机器,当我的同伴将样品配置好后,我打开高效液相色谱仪以及与之连接的电脑,先调试电脑软件设置参数(比如检测时间,流动相比例),再用流动相将机器进行润洗三遍,是为了排出机器内的空气,保证色谱柱的通畅,观察色谱图的线是否平稳,接着用20微升的进样器,吸取样品注入进样口中,等待半分钟后将进样器拔出,接着等待电脑上的色谱图绘制。
A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is used to measure the amount of caffeine in coffee. The experiment involves two people working together, one arranging the sample and the other operating the machine. I was responsible for operating the machine. After my partner finished the sample configuration, I turned on the high performance liquid chromatography and the computer connected with it. First, I checked the computer software and set the parameters(such as the detection time, the ratio of the mobile phase, pressure and flow rate). Then observe whether the line on the chromatogram is steady or not, The sample is drawn and injected into the sample mouth by a 20 microliter injector. After half a minute, the injector is pulled out and the chromatogram is drawn on the computer.
紫外可见光谱法(ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy),这种方法利用分子的吸光特性对有机物进行鉴别,分子轨道中的电子可以在不同的能级之间跃迁,当外界辐射光的能量达到跃迁所需能量时,电子会吸收能量,发生跃迁,同时出射光的光强会低于入射光。这个规律叫做朗伯比尔光吸收定律,数学关系式为A(吸光度)=lg(I0/I)=摩尔吸光系数*光程*溶液浓度。叫这个名字是因为可以使电子跃迁的光波长主要在近紫外区和可见区,因此使用200-800nm的光就可以鉴别大部分有机物。使用的仪器是紫外-可见分光光度计
This method uses the light absorption characteristics of molecules to identify organic matter. Electrons in molecular orbitals can transition between different energy levels. When the energy of external radiation reaches the energy required for transition, electrons will absorb energy and transition will occur. This phenomenon is called lambert-beer law, the mathematic relation is The name comes from the fact that the wavelengths of light that enable electron transitions are mainly in the near-ultraviolet and visible regions, so most organic matter can be identified using light that the wavelength of which is from 200 to 800nm.
原理:不同物质对不同波长光的吸光度不同。可以用波长为横坐标,吸光度(吸光度可以测量入射光和出射光的光强之比,出射光强越小光被吸收的程度越大)为纵坐标作出吸收光谱图。图像上会有一个最大吸收峰。同一物质不论在溶液中的浓度大小如何,最大吸收峰所对应的波长都是相同的。不同物质的吸收曲线的最大吸收波长都不同
Different substances have different absorbance for different wavelengths of light.An absorption spectrum can be plotted using wavelength as the abscission coordinate and absorbance (absorbance measures the ratio of the intensity of the incoming and outgoing light; the lower the intensity of the outgoing light, the more light is absorbed) as the ordinate coordinate. There will be a maximum absorption peak in the image. The wavelength corresponding to the maximum absorption peak of the same substance is the same regardless of its concentration in solution. The absorption curves of different substances are different and curves have different maximum absorption wavelengths.
光为什么会被吸收?吸收的是能量,用来给物质中的电子在不同的轨道间跃迁,不同物质轨道间能量不同
UV所使用的的仪器是紫外可见分光光度计,由光源、单色器,检测器和样品室构成,一台仪器的大小和一台家用打印机的大小类似,光源用来提供入射光,通常是碘钨灯或氘灯,单色器用光栅或棱镜来将光源转变为所需要的特定波长的单色光,样品室有四个放置比色皿的孔洞,在实验中,有一个比色皿中需要盛放空白溶液,用来排除溶液中其他成分带来的误差,检测的波长通常选择,最大吸光度处的波长,因为这样光被吸收掉的程度最明显。
The instrument used is an ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer, which consists of a light source, a monochromator, a detector and a sample room. The instrument I used in the experiment is similar in size to that of a household printer. The light source is used to provide the incident light, usually a deuterium lamp, and the monochromator uses a grating or prism to convert the light source into the desired monochromatic light of a specific wavelength. There are four holes for placing the cuvette in the sample room. In the experiment, one cuvette needs to hold a reference solution to eliminate errors caused by other components in the solution. The wavelength of detection is usually chosen at the point of maximum absorbance, because this is the most obvious degree of light absorption.
那些使分子在紫外-可见波长段吸收光的能量,产生吸收峰的基团,称为发色团,一般是带π电子基团,比如苯环,碳碳双键,碳碳三键,其特点是这些基团都有不饱和键,电子从π成键轨道跃迁到π反键轨道,或从未成键状态跃迁到π反键轨道。例如苯环在254nm处有一个吸收峰。同时,假如一些基团或原子单独存在并不在紫外-可见区产生吸收峰,而与发色团连接后使发色团的吸收带波长向长波转移,并增加吸收强度,这些基团通常带有未成键的电子对,比如羰基(-OR),羟基(-OH)卤素原子(Br,Cl)
Those groups that enable molecules to absorb the energy of light in the UV-Vis wavelength range, resulting in absorption peaks, are called chromophores, and generally have π-electron groups, Like benzene, carbon-carbon double bond, carbon-carbon triple bond, The characteristic of these groups is that they all possess Unsaturated π bond, the electron on which can transition from bonding orbital to anti-bonding orbital, or from a non-bonding state to an π anti-bonding orbital, for example, benzene has a absorption peak at 254 nm,Some groups or atoms do not produce absorption peaks in the UV-VIS region when they exist alone, but connect with chromophore to transfer the absorption band wavelength to long wave and increase the absorption intensity, they are called auxochrome group, these groups usually have unbonded electron pairs, such as carbonyl (-OR), hydroxyl (-OH) halogen atoms (-Br, -Cl), for example, when benzene is attached to a hydroxyl group, the absorption peak rise to 270 nm

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|仪器分析方法英文稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:仪器分析方法

工业药剂学(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:工业药剂学

核心内容
Industrial pharmacy is the study of the basic theory of pharmaceutical preparations, the design and preparation of pharmaceutical formulations, and the bridge between the raw drug and the drug eventually sold.(举个药物不同剂型的例子)
In the first chapter, I learned some basic concepts and learned that a raw drug can be given in many different dosage forms and routes of administration. For example, tablets and capsules can be used for oral administration, liquid preparations can be used for injection,. And turning drugs into preparations also has different effects, either to reduce the toxic side effects, to deliver the drug to the site of administration (for example, insulin will be inactivated by enzymes in stomach acid if taken orally,), to Change the rate at which the drug takes effect (quick release praparation is useful to first-aid)
In the second chapter, I learned some principles and rules of drug prescription design (prescription is the type and dosage of drug substance + additive). It is necessary to study the physical/chemical/biological properties of drugs first (the more the better), then determine the route of drug administration and drug dosage form, and understand the advantages and disadvantages of different routes of drug administration.
Since the third chapter, I have carried out specific studies on different dosage forms. First, I learned tablets and understood the characteristics of tablets. Tablets have accurate dosage, convenient storage and transportation, long shelf life and low cost, but they are not suitable for drugs with too large dosage or for patients with swallowing difficulties. I Learned the common auxiliary materials of tablets, tablets often need to add diluent fillers (such as dextrin, starch), adhesives (methyl cellulose), disintegrators (sodium carboxymethyl starch), lubricants (magnesium stearate).(常见辅料的概念和用处)防腐剂、表面活性剂。着色剂、甜味剂.
As for the process of producing tablets, I also conducted an experiment to prepare aspirin tablets in a special experimental class. I dissolved 0.2g citric acid and 2g starch in 20ml distilled water to get 10% starch pulp as a binder. Then weigh 20g acetyl salicylic acid powder, and mix it with starch pulp step by step until the powder is lightly knead into a group and dispersed when touched, pass the mixed powder through a 16-mesh sieve, Lay the sifted powder in a paper box and put it in the oven to dry for half an hour, After drying, pour the powder into the tablet machine to get tablets eventually.

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|工业药剂学审核英文稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:工业药剂学

药物分析(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:药物分析

核心内容
在药物分析实验课程中,我学习了使用分析化学实验,对药物进行成分与含量测定的多种实验的实验原理和实验操作。主要有阿司匹林肠溶片的含量测定;使用硫代乙酰胺法检查葡萄糖中的重金属;使用紫外光谱法进行异烟肼片的鉴别;使用薄层色谱法对布洛芬的有关物质进行检查,在这些实验之间,我对于阿司匹林肠溶片的含量测定实验最为感兴趣。
实验原理:采用两步滴定法,因为阿司匹林易水解,产生水杨酸和醋酸,肠溶片里还有酒石酸作稳定剂,直接使用酸碱滴定方法的话会导致测量不准确,所以用两步法滴定(两步法滴定的通俗解释:阿司匹林的主要成分是乙酰水杨酸,)
实验步骤:先称取30篇阿司匹林肠溶片在研钵中研磨成粉,倒入100ml容量瓶中,加入精确量取的70ml乙醇,再加水清洗研钵并将洗涤液倒入容量瓶中,最后加水定量至100ml。因为阿司匹林肠溶片中有不溶解附加剂,所以需要过滤,取20ml的续滤液。再加入中性乙醇20ml和3滴酚酞指示剂(遇到碱呈粉红色,遇酸无色);滴加0.1mol/L的氢氧化钠用来中和游离的酸,当溶液呈现粉红色的时候停止加入。这时候溶液中的游离酸就被除去了。再精密量取过量但已知浓度和体积的氢氧化钠(这个实验取20ml),在70摄氏度条件下水浴加热15min,同时振摇,使阿司匹林完全水解,滴加精确配置的0.05mol/l的硫酸溶液,滴加至溶液紫红色刚好褪去,这时候过量的氢氧化钠就被中和了。已知硫酸溶液的浓度和滴定的体积,就可以计算出未和阿司匹林反应的氢氧化钠的量,与氢氧化钠的总量做减法就知道与阿司匹林反应的氢氧化钠的物质的量,从已知的反应方程式可以知道,1mol硫酸消耗2mol氢氧化钠,同时1mol氢氧化钠消耗1mol的阿司匹林。

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|药物分析aps稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:药物分析

药理学(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:药理学

核心内容
药理学是一门研究不同的药物对于人体之间相互作用规律的学科,药理学的基本理论包括药物效应学和药物代谢动力学,除此之外还将药物按照作用机理的不同进行具体的区分和介绍
Pharmacology studies the laws of interaction between different drugs and the human body. The basic theories of pharmacology include pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. In addition, drugs are specifically distinguished and introduced according to different mechanisms.
在药物效应学中,我学习了药物作用和药理作用,药理作用是作用在机体器官上所造成的结果,具体表现为兴奋和抑制,而药物作用范围广泛,但具体可分为治疗作用和不良作用,不良作用是与用药目的无关但是对病人造成了不适的一切作用的统称。我还学习了药物效应与剂量的关系,这种关系可分为随剂量增加而增强的量反应和显著改变或反应机体性质的质反应。我还了解到了什么是受体,受体是药物作用的靶点,是一类转导细胞信号转导的蛋白质,与体内产生的配体结合起生理作用,而与药物结合时起到药理作用。药物按照与受体结合后起效的方式可分为拮抗药:占据受体但是其起效方式是阻断体内的配体与受体结合;激动药:可以与受体结合,同时产生药效活性
In pharmacoeffectology, I learned about drug effect and pharmacological effect. Pharmacological effect refers to the result caused by drugs on organs of the body, which is manifested in excitement and inhibition. Drug action has a wide range, but can be divided into therapeutic effect and adverse effect. I also learned about the dose-dependent relationship between drug effects, which can be divided into quantitative responses, which increase with increasing dose, and qualitative responses, which significantly alter or reflect the nature of the organism. I also learned about an important concept called receptor, which is the target of the drug. It is a kind of protein that mediate cell signal. Normally it has a physiological effect when combined with compound produced inside the body,. Drugs can be divided into 2 categories according to the way they bind to the receptor, first we have antagonists: they occupy the receptor but act by blocking the binding of the internal compound to the receptor; Agonists: it can bind to receptors and produce pharmacological activity.
在药物代谢动力学中,我主要学习了药物在体内所经历的全过程,包括吸收、分布、代谢与排泄,药物的吸收方式有很多,包括口服,注射,鼻腔吸入。药物的分布是指药物经过血液循环到达身体各个部位的过程,这一过程受到多种因素的影响,药物与血浆蛋白的结合能力,器官的血流量,体内的生理屏障(血脑屏障,血眼屏障)。药物的代谢是指药物经体内肝药酶作用失去药理活性的过程,而药物的排泄是从肾脏经尿液排出体外。以上就是药物的体内完整过程。除此之外在这一章里我还学到了药物消除动力学,是药物在体内的浓度随时间变化的数学关系,分为主要分为零级消除动力学:药物在一定时间内以恒定的量的降低;;一级消除动力学:药物在体内消除的速度与药物浓度成正比。
In pharmacokinetics, I mainly learned the whole process of drugs in the body, including absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion. Drugs can be absorbed in many ways, including oral administration, injection and nasal inhalation. Drug distribution refers to the process by which a drug travels through the bloodstream to various parts of the body, and this process is affected by a variety of factors, such as the drug's ability to bind to plasma proteins, blood flow in organs, and physiological barriers in the body (blood-brain barrier, blood-eye barrier). Drug metabolism refers to the process in which drugs lose their pharmacological activity through the action of liver drug enzymes in vivo, and drug excretion means that drugs are usually excreted from the kidney through urine. So that's what happens to drugs in the body. In addition, I also learned drug elimination kinetics in this chapter, which is the mathematical relationship of drug concentration in the body over time. It is mainly divided into zero-order elimination kinetics: drug decreases at a constant amount within a certain period of time, and first order elimination kinetics: The rate at which a drug is eliminated from the body is proportional to its concentration.
在第三章我学习了传出神经药理学,传出神经系统可以理解为大脑控制身体器官的途径,包括自主神经系统和运动神经系统,自主神经系统支配心脏血管和平滑肌,不需要意识控制,而运动神经系统通过支配骨骼肌控制我们的运动和呼吸。传出神经系统上的药物受体分为乙酰胆碱受体和肾上腺素受体,平时接收神经递质完成神经信号转导,对不同肌肉、血管起到不同的作用,如收缩或舒张。例如匹鲁卡品是乙酰胆碱受体激动药,药理作用是收缩瞳孔、降低眼内压,可以治疗青光眼和虹膜睫状体炎。
In Chapter 3 I learned about efferent neuropharmacology. The efferent nervous system can be understood as the pathway by which the brain controls the organs of the body, including the autonomic nervous system, which innervates the blood vessels and smooth muscles of the heart and does not require conscious control, and the motor nervous system, which controls our movement and breathing by innervating the skeletal muscles. Drug receptors on the efferent nervous system are divided into acetylcholine receptors and adrenergic receptors, which normally receive neurotransmitters to complete nerve signal transduction and play different roles on different muscles and blood vessels, such as contraction or diastole. Pilocarpine, for example, is an acetylcholine receptor agonist whose pharmacological effect is to shrink the pupil and reduce intraocular pressure. It can treat glaucoma and iridocyclitis.

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|药理学英文审核稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:药理学

生物医学工程导论(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:生物医学工程导论

核心内容
生物医学工程导论是对以医学为目的的生物工程学知识进行概括性介绍的学科,主要包括生物材料(义肢或人工器官),生命监测装置(一系列生物传感器,如血糖仪)与我们在医院中常见的大型医疗器械(医学影像系统)
在第一章中我们学习了医学检测领域与生物传感器,生物传感器是医学检测的主要手段,生物传感器是被用于识别生物体中的生化指标并将其转化为电信号的装置,(在这一章节中我们对不同的医学检测手段进行了介绍)。例如我们在医院中常常会做的血常规检测,一种检测可以对身体中的多个生化指标进行检测,例如血细胞种类与数量的检测,常用的方法是用电阻抗法,原理是:因为溶解有血细胞的血液与相同渗透压的电解质溶液相比是不良导体,因此我们将溶有血细胞的血液倒进电解质溶液中并通电,保持电解质溶液中的电流恒定,在两电极之间放置一个可以检测电压的小孔管,当血细胞通过小孔时,因为导电性比电解质溶液更差,当电流恒定时电压会突然急剧升高,在仪器表面显示为一个脉冲信号,而且血细胞的体积越大,电压越高,脉冲信号幅度越大。各种大小不同的脉冲信号被送入仪器内经过放大、甄别、整形的给出细胞计数结果,目前的多数仪器还可以提供细胞体积直方图。还可以对常见的病毒性疾病进行检测,核心原理是病毒抗原(antigen)与抗体(antibody)的特异性结合,可以使用双抗体夹心法(double antibody sandwich method)检测可能存在的病毒抗原,一种抗体固定在固体基底上,,另一种与特定的酶相连接的抗体处于游离状态,加入血液,假如血液中有该抗原存在,三者会形成牢固的复合物,再洗去未结合抗原的游离酶联抗体。接下来加入该酶可以催化的底物,生成有色的反应物。即可根据反应体系中的颜色深浅,判断血液中有无该抗原存在。
在第二章中我们学习了生物医学材料,生物医学材料的概念是那些适用于取代或修复活体组织的人造或天然的材料,它有三个主要的用途,第一,用来替代受损伤的组织或器官(假牙,人工关节,义肢),第二,改善或恢复器官功能(隐形眼镜),第三,辅助治疗过程(介入性治疗血管内支架,介入性治疗是用于一些身体内的微笑通道或者狭窄的血管)。因为这一类材料的应用目的是应用于人体这一特殊的应用场景,所以我们对生物医学材料的性能会有一定的要求,第一、生物功能性,which means这些生物医学材料可以起到作用,例如用作人工心脏瓣膜的材料必须耐磨耐腐蚀,齿科修复材料,例如种植牙必须有良好的耐磨性能和较高的硬度以及良好的导热性。第二点、生物医学材料的生物相容性即材料可以较好地与生物体共存,即人体上发生的反应(炎症、细胞毒性,致癌性)和材料的反应(腐蚀、降解)都应该在可接受范围内。即人不因为材料的植入(inplantation)而生病,材料也不因为长期的处于人体环境中而损坏。历史上齿科植入体曾经使用过钴铬合金,就因为铬会对人体有致癌性而被弃用。
接下来我还被介绍了几种常见的生物医学材料,分为金属材料:不锈钢用作手术器械,血管支架,矫正牙套。钛合金用来制作骨科植入假体,例如各种人工关节,踝关节,膝关节,髋关节
无机非金属材料:羟基磷灰石脊椎动物骨骼和牙齿的主要组成成分,因为来自动物,所以生物相容性很好,是很好的骨的替代和再生材料
高分子材料:硅橡胶可以用作鼓膜修复片、隐形眼镜和整形填充物
胶原蛋白非常重要,是脊椎动物皮肤、肌腱的主要组成成分,凝胶可以用作创伤敷料,纺丝可以用作外科手术缝合线、粉末状用于止血剂。
Introduction to Biomedical engineering is a general introduction to bioengineering for medical purposes, including biomaterials (prosthetics or artificial organs), vital monitoring devices (a series of biosensors, such as blood glucose meters), and large medical devices commonly found in hospitals (medical imaging systems, CT or MRI).
In the first chapter, we studied the field of medical detection and biosensor, which is the main means of medical detection. Biosensor is a device used to identify biochemical indicators in organisms and convert them into electrical signals (in this chapter, we introduced different means of medical detection). For example, we often do routine blood tests in hospitals. A test can detect multiple biochemical indicators in the body, such as the type and number of blood cells. The commonly used method is resistance method, and the principle is: Because blood dissolved with blood cells is a poor conductor compared to an electrolyte solution with the same osmotic pressure, we pour blood dissolved with blood cells into the electrolyte solution and run a current through it to keep the current in the electrolyte solution constant. We put a small hole tube between the two electrodes that can measure the voltage. When the blood cells pass through the hole, because they are less conductive than the electrolyte solution, When the current was constant, the voltage rose sharply, showing up as a pulse on the surface of the instrument, and the larger the blood cell size and the higher the voltage, the larger the pulse amplitude. Pulse signals of different sizes are sent into the instrument to be amplified, screened and shaped to give cell count results. Most current instruments can also provide cell volume histogram. Common viral diseases can also be tested. The core principle is the specific combination of viral antigens and antibody. double antibody sandwich method can be used to detect possible viral antigens. One antibody is fixed to a solid substrate, and another antibody linked to a specific enzyme is free and added to the blood. If the antigen is present in the blood, the three will form a strong complex and wash away the free enzyme-linked antibody that is not bound to the antigen. Next, a substrate that the enzyme can catalyze is added to produce a colored reactant. According to the color of the reaction system, the presence of the antigen in the blood can be determined.
In Chapter 2, we learned about biomedical materials. The concept of biomedical materials is those artificial or natural materials suitable for replacing or repairing living tissues. It has three main uses: first, to replace damaged tissues or organs (dentures, artificial joints, prostheses), second, to improve or restore organ function (contact lenses), and third, Adjuvant treatment procedures (interventional therapy intravascular stents, which are used in some smiling channels or narrow blood vessels in the body). Since this kind of material is used in the special application scenario of human body, we have certain requirements on the performance of biomedical materials. Firstly, biological functionality, which means that these biomedical materials can play a role. For example, materials used as artificial heart valves must be wear resistant and corrosion resistant, and dental repair materials. For example, implant teeth must have good wear resistance, high hardness and good thermal conductivity. Secondly, biocompatibility of biomedical materials means that the materials can coexist well with organisms, that is, the reactions (inflammation, cytotoxicity, carcinogenicity) and the reactions (corrosion, degradation) of materials on the human body should be within an acceptable range. That is, people do not get sick because of inplantation of materials, and materials are not damaged because of long-term exposure to human environment. Cobalt-chromium alloys have historically been used in dental implants, but have been abandoned because chromium is carcinogenic to humans.
Then I was introduced to several common biomedical materials, divided into metal materials: stainless steel for surgical instruments, vascular stents, orthodontic braces. Titanium alloys are used to make orthopedic implants, such as artificial joints, ankles, knees, hips
Inorganic nonmetallic materials: hydroxyapatite is the main component of vertebrate bones and teeth. Because it comes from animals, it has good biocompatibility and is a good bone replacement and regeneration material
Polymer material: Silicone rubber can be used as tympanic membrane repair tablets, contact lenses and plastic fillers
Collagen is very important. It is the main component of the skin and tendons of vertebrates. Gels can be used as wound dressings, spinning can be used as surgical sutures, and powdered as a hemostatic agent.

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|生物医学工程导论aps审核英文稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:生物医学工程导论

波谱解析(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:波谱解析

核心内容
波谱解析其实和仪器分析的概念相同,都是运用大型复杂的仪器设备,分析物质的结构和组成。区别在于仪器分析课程中所使用的仪器相对来说体积更小,操作简单,价格较低,本科生可以在实验课程上亲自操作体验,而波谱解析中所涉及的仪器体积大,价格昂贵,例如在我的毕业论文中所用到的质谱仪,我只见过一台给研究生用的,还由专门的工作人员看管,研究生需要签字才能使用。所以在这门课里,我们专注于对检测结果,也就是谱图的分析
Spectrum analysis is actually the same concept as instrumental analysis, which uses large and complex instruments to analyze the structure and composition of matter. The difference lies in the fact that the instruments used in the course of instrumental analysis are relatively small in volume, simple in operation and low in price, and undergraduates can operate and experience in the experimental course by themselves, while the instruments involved in spectrum analysis are large and expensive. For example, the mass spectrometer used in my graduation thesis, I have only seen one for graduate students, and it is also supervised by special staff. Graduate students need to sign to use it. So in this course, we're going to focus on the analysis of the test results, which are spectrograms
首先我要介绍的是核磁共振,这种方法不仅在大学实验室中被用于解析有机化合物的结构,以这种方法为原理的核磁共振成像在医院中也是一种常见的检查手段。
核磁共振的原理:核磁共振主要是由原子核的自旋运动引起的,不同的原子核自旋运动的情况不同
原子核是带正电荷的粒子,当粒子的自旋量子数不为零时,它就有自旋运动,自旋的正电荷粒子就有循环的电流,产生磁场,形成磁矩,而磁矩具有方向性
但是原子核的磁矩此时是方向混乱的,外加一个磁场使得原子核磁矩变得有序,对于自旋量子数为1/2的原子核有两种取向,两种取向就有两个能级,一个低一个高
这时我们再外加电磁波辐射,当电磁辐射的能量恰好等于自旋核的两种不同取向的能量差时,低能态的自旋核吸收电磁辐射能跃迁到高能态,这种现象就是核磁共振
再通过傅里叶变换得到一张谱图
(仅限于氢1核和碳13核,而且碳13核的检测灵敏度比氢1核差很多)
The nucleus is a positively charged particle. When the spin quantum number of the particle is not zero, it has spin motion. A positively charged particle of spin has a circulating current, which produces a magnetic field and a magnetic moment, and the magnetic moment is directional
But the magnetic moment of the nucleus is now disordered, it will only be ordered by the addition of a magnetic field. For a nucleus with a spin quantum number of 1/2 there are two orientations, either higher energy in the opposite direction of the applied magnetic field, or lower energy in the same direction as the applied magnetic field, nuclei with spin quantum numbers of 1/2 have hydrogen nuclei and carbon nuclei, which are also the most common atoms in organic compound.
Then we add electromagnetic radiation. When the energy of the electromagnetic radiation is exactly equal to the energy difference between the two different orientations of the spin nuclei, the low-energy spin nuclei absorb the electromagnetic radiation energy and jump to the higher energy state. This phenomenon is the principle of NMR(nuclear magnetic resonance).

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|波谱解析英文稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:波谱解析

无机与分析化学实验(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:无机与分析化学实验

核心内容
I did this experiment about determining the content of vitamin C in the vitamin C tablets using direct iodimetry.
Vitamin C is a really reductive compound, it can be oxidized by oxidants, such as iodine, it can react iodine in a ratio of 1 to 1, and starch is used to indicate the end point of titration because it can form a blue inclusion compound with iodine.
Now the experiment part, I take 20 pieces of vitamin C tablets and precisely weigh it on analytical balance, and grind it into powder(研钵的英文), dissolve the powder in dilute acetic acid solution, pour the solution into the volumetric flask so that I can get the concentration. Then I filter the solution through separator funnel, I measure 50 ml of filtrate in Conical bottle and add 3 drops of starch indicator solution in it, after this I set up burette and start titration, meanwhile i keep shaking the bottle to see if the solution turn blue, when the solution turned blue and the color does not fade in 30 seconds, it means the titration is done, I write down the amount of iodine solution that is used and calculate the content of vitamin c in vitamin c tablet.
Besides this experiment I also did the experiment of Determining the content of barium in barium chloride dihydrate by precipitation gravimetry; the Preparation of sodium carbonate; the determination of ionization constant of acetic acid.

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|无机与分析化学实验aps稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:无机与分析化学实验

有机化学实验(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:有机化学实验

核心内容
在有机化学实验课程中,我所做的实验包括,乙酰乙酸乙酯的制备,邻、对硝基苯酚的制备;苯甲酸重结晶的实验;苯甲酸乙酯的合成,其中我对于乙酰乙酸乙酯的制备最感兴趣。乙酰乙酸乙酯是我们有机化学实验中常常使用的溶剂,可以用于制备多种药物,比如抗生素和维生素B1。(画结构式)
实验原理:记忆化学反应方程式
用镊子夹取并称量0.8g的钠,放进圆底烧瓶中,用高沸点的干燥二甲苯将钠融化,融化后急速的振摇,之后冷却(是为了将制备出颗粒很小的钠珠,如果颗粒很大的话要反应很长时间,比如几个小时)振摇的时候要拿抹布包起来因为很烫,冷却的时候要轻拿轻放防止小钠珠重新融合。倒出二甲苯
快速地在圆底烧瓶中加入9ml的乙酸乙酯搭建反应体系,需要电热锅进行加热,冷凝管上还要加入装有碳酸钙的塞子防止空气中的水分进入。当钠珠消失,溶液变为橘红色时反应完全。冷却到室温之后进行后处理
后处理:加入浓度为50%的乙酸水溶液中和钠盐,直到溶液变为澄清透明的状态。转移到分液漏斗中,加入等体积的饱和氯化钠,摇晃之后等溶液静置分层,上层为橘红色,下层为透明溶液,保留上层溶液。
倒进锥形瓶中加入无水硫酸钠进行干燥,无水硫酸钠会变味白色颗粒状的物质,剩下的液体中不含水分,倒入圆底烧瓶中准备进行常压蒸馏去除溶剂乙酸乙酯。再用减压蒸馏把目标产物乙酰乙酸乙酯蒸出来,减压蒸馏要先抽真空再慢慢升温,如果反过来可能会炸,得到的产物在室温下是透明液体。
整个实验过程要牢记完全无水。否则可能会发生爆炸。

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|有机化学实验aps稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:有机化学实验

物理化学实验(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:物理化学实验

核心内容
我在第5个学期做了物理化学的实验,我总共做了5个实验,分别是燃烧热的测定、液体饱和蒸气压的测定、蔗糖水解反应速率的测定、电动势和温度关系的测定以及草酸钙的热分析曲线的测定。其中蔗糖水解反应速率的测定令我印象最为深刻。
I took this course called physical chemistry experiment in the 5th semester. I did 5 experiment in total, they are the measurement of combustion heat, the measurement of Saturated vapor pressure of liquid, the determination of hydrolysis rate of sucrose, the relationship between electromotive force and temperature and the drawing of calcium oxalate thermal analysis curve. Among all these experiments, the determination of hydrolysis rate of sucrose left me with the most impression.
首先让我介绍这个实验的原理,影响化学反应速率的因素有很多,比如反应物浓度、温度、催化剂,化学反应速率的通用方程是反应速率=速率常数*反应物浓度,其中速率常数包括了除了浓度外的一切影响因素,反应速率是一个微分,对速率积分就可以得到反应物浓度与时间的关系式、所以我们只需要测量不同时间反应物的浓度,就可以得到速率常数的值
First let me introduce the principle of this experiment, there are many factors affecting chemical reaction rate, such as reactant concentration, temperature and catalyst. The general equation of chemical reaction rate is reaction rate = rate constant times reactant concentration, in which rate constant includes all factors except concentration. Integrating this equation gives us the reactant concentration relative to time, so we only need to measure the concentration of the reactant at different times to get the value of the reaction rate constant.
但是问题是,如果使用化学方法直接测定特定时间下溶液中蔗糖的浓度,在测定时溶液中的反应仍在进行中,我无法得到实时的准确浓度,因此需要一种能够实时反应溶液中蔗糖浓度变化的方法。所以借助溶液中蔗糖和蔗糖水解产物旋光度的不同间接测量溶液中蔗糖的浓度,同时因为旋光度与组分浓度呈线性关系,计算也非常方便
But the problem is, if I use chemical methods to directly measure the concentration of sucrose in the solution at a specific time, the reaction in the solution is still in progress at the time of measurement, I can't get the exact concentration in real time, Therefore, the concentration of sucrose in solution can be measured indirectly in real time with the help of different optical rotation of sucrose and sucrose hydrolyzed products in solution, and the calculation is also very convenient because the rotations are linear with the concentration of components
现在到实验过程,先打开旋光仪,并在旋光管中加入蒸馏水(旋光管就是一个圆柱形的透明管子),这一过程中要避免旋光管中出现气泡,因为蒸馏水是用来矫正旋光仪的零点的。再分别配置不同浓度的蔗糖溶液(0.8mol/L,0.6mol/L,0.4mol/L)和盐酸溶液,(因为蔗糖水解需要酸催化)。将蔗糖溶液倒入锥形瓶中然后加入盐酸溶液,混合均匀后倒入旋光管中放进旋光仪,计时8分钟,15分钟,20分钟,30分钟各测一次旋光度,记录结果。
Now to the experimental process, first open the gyroscope, and add distilled water in the polarization tube (polarization tube is a cylindrical transparent tube), in this process bubbles must be avoided in the polarization tube, because distilled water is used to correct the zero of the gyroscope. different concentration of sucrose solution are already prepared for us(0.8 mol/L, 0.6 mol/L, 0.4 mol/L). Pour the sucrose solution into the conical bottle and then add the hydrochloric acid solution (because sucrose hydrolysis needs acid as catalyst), mix well and pour it into the polarization tube. Measure the optical rotation at 8 minutes, 15 minutes, 20 minutes and 30 minutes respectively, and record the results.

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|物理化学实验稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:物理化学实验

生物化学实验(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:生物化学实验

核心内容
在生物化学实验中,我学习了以下几个实验的操作,分别是SDS-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳测定蛋白质的相对分子质量;离子交换柱层析法分离氨基酸;过氧化氢酶米氏常数的测定以及紫外光吸收法测定蛋白质浓度。其中我对SDS-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳测定蛋白质的相对分子质量的实验最感兴趣。
十二烷基硫酸钠就是sds,可以按一定比例与蛋白质分子结合,是蛋白质分子带上大量的负电荷,清除不同蛋白质原有电荷差异,同时让蛋白质解聚成为单体,消除三维结构差异,这样蛋白质的迁移率就仅取决于分子大小。
而聚丙烯酰胺凝胶分为上层浓缩胶和下层的分离胶,上层的浓缩胶使蛋白质浓缩为很窄的条带,使看得清楚。分离胶对蛋白质-SDS复合物具有阻滞作用,相对分子质量大的蛋白质受到的阻力大,在凝胶中迁移速度慢,相对分子质量小的在凝胶中迁移速度快
制备凝胶的过程:先制备分离胶,按照说明书上给定的比例将不同物质用移液枪加入烧杯,并混匀,再将分离胶用移液枪放入制胶板中离顶部1cm的高度处,静置超过30min等分离胶凝固,再弄相同的手法配置浓缩胶加入分离胶上面。在凝固前插入梳齿为了给注入样品留出空间,再静置30min等凝固
将不同的蛋白质溶液在eppendorf管中染成蓝色,水浴加热五分钟。接下来准备电泳,在电泳槽里放胶板和电极缓冲液(电极缓冲液是因为电泳时间很长,要长时间地保持溶液中的ph值恒定),拆掉梳齿之后就在之前预留的孔中滴加样品和一个marker(marker是想田径场上的50,100,150米标签一样,用来标定跑了不同距离的蛋白质分子量是多少)
调整电压开始电泳,等marker跑到电泳下端后停止电泳。把凝胶拿出来放在考马斯亮蓝溶液中染色再脱色到看得清楚,就可以得到结果了,可以计算出蛋白质的相对迁移率和相对分子质量

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|生物化学实验aps稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:生物化学实验

微生物学实验(APS 审核稿)

专业:制药工程 | 课程:微生物学实验

核心内容
在微生物学实验课程中,我学习了以下的几个实验,革兰氏染色法;霉菌的接种与培养;微生物平板计数法;微生物菌落形态观察和细菌的简单染色;高压蒸汽灭菌以及环境水样微生物的检测。在这些实验中,我最喜欢的是革兰氏染色法。
原理:革兰氏阳性菌的细胞壁厚,肽聚糖含量高,类脂质含量低。革兰氏阴性菌细胞壁薄,肽聚糖含量低,类脂质含量高。针对这个特点建立了一套染色方法可以区分出两种细菌,这一方法的原理即是这一实验操作过程的概述:先用结晶紫初染,这时候两种细菌都会变为蓝色,水洗之后再滴加碘液,碘液会和结晶紫形成蓝紫色复合物。到这一步两种菌没有分别。水洗之后再用95%乙醇脱色,革兰氏阳性菌肽聚糖层厚,无法脱除颜色,而革兰氏阴性菌会被脱成无色,水洗之后再加入番红染液,革兰氏阳性菌无法被染上还是蓝紫色,革兰氏阴性菌会被染成红色
步骤:过程:先在载玻片上滴3滴生理盐水,3个液滴互不相连,接下来从养好了菌的试管里接种细菌,要用到接种环,接种的前后都要用酒精灯灼烧接种环和试管口以及软木塞,防止菌繁殖到外面去。
接着把载玻片在酒精灯上干燥,去掉水分就滴加结晶紫染液初染一分钟,用蒸馏水清洗掉,不能直接冲刷细菌,接下来碘液,乙醇和番红染液也都是先滴加,等待,最后冲刷掉的步骤,特别是乙醇脱色时间要短,脱色时间过长阳性菌也会变为无色。
再干燥后就可以在显微镜下观察到染色后的细菌了。

参考:来源:aps稿子.rar|微生物学实验aps稿子.docx|专业:制药工程|课程:微生物学实验

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